Information Process Theory of Learning

Atkinson & Shiffrin, Kintsch
Klatsky, Loftus & Loftus
George Miller (1956)
Newell, Shaw and Simon (1955-60)
Gagne' and Dick
Anderson (1984)
Rothkopf (1970)

Part One : The Theory

Information processing involves:
a). Students are actively processing,
storing and retrieving information
b). Teaching involves helping learners to develop
information processing skills and apply them systematically to mastering the curriculum.
Cognitive structures relate to structure of the subject matter.
Information processing emphasizes cognitive structures built by the learner.

Two types of memory exist, they are;
Episodic memory- the recall of events, which is in detail and sequence.
Semantic memory - intentional learning, which involves encoding, storage and retrieval of information.

The Three Stage Information Processing Model This is the most accepted model, with versions developed by
Atkinson & Shiffrin, Kintsch,
Klatsky, Loftus & Loftus.
The three stages of this model are
1) Input or sensory registry,
2)Short-term memory,
3) Long-term memory.

Sensory registry

• -Input primarily from sight and sound.
• -processing occurs in 3-5 seconds.
• -input must go to short term memory for actual processing.
• -information entering is monitored at a low attention level so can selectively respond. For
• example, when driving a car and simultaneously carrying on a conversation, one can monitor and
• respond to driving conditions without transfer of this information to short-term memory

.
Short-Term Memory and Rehearsal
-Information transferred to short-term memory (STM)
can remain active 15-20 seconds without rehearsal, longer if practice.
- STM has limit of 7 +/- 2 items.
-STM capacity can be increased by chunking.
Chunking places input into subsets that are remembered as single units.
- George Miller (1956) determined the chunk is the unit in memory; therefore 7+/- 2 chunks can typically be recalled from STM.
-STM is equivalent to working memory.
-Three means of handling cognitive tasks in STM have been defined
Chunk
Break into subparts and process one at a time.
Practice skills until they are automatic.

Long-Term Memory and Storage - Information for future reference is stored in long-term memory (LTM).
- LTM is thought to have unlimited capacity and duration.
-most additions to LTM occur through deliberate efforts rote memorization is not a good method for LTM

Semantic Network Theory of storage into LTM -Assume concepts are stored in LTM within hierarchical networks of meaningful association.
-Superordinate-subordinate relationships occur e.g. animal-dog-collie.
-Concept linkage or common concept link occurs
direct linkage: black-white
indirect linkage: black-powder, black-smith
-Proximity of concepts stored within networks is dependant on degree of meaningful relatedness.
-Time to retrieve related information is relative to proximity of concept in the hierarchy.
-Because semantic theories can be built into computer programs, they have been useful in cognitive simulation research.
- Semantic network theories portray memory as static storage of information.

Schema Theory of storage into LTM -Explains constructive encoding of input and reconstruction of storage memories.
-Similar theories are plans, scripts, frames
-New knowledge is interpreted within the context of existing schema.
-New knowledge is interpreted from the beginning within context supplied by existing knowledge.

Information Processing as a computer model. -Information processing easily relates to computer, Input-process-output. -Processing information involves subroutines or procedures. -Subroutines are performed in a hierarchical manner to complete tasks. -Flow of control can be diagramed. -1955-60 Logic Theorist computer program by Newell, Shaw and Simon
was used to simulate human process of solving theorems in symbolic language. Same time MIT had pattern recognition program. Many computer models for human information processing. -Two types of information processing models are those dealing with simulation, or step by step and those that are dealing with artificial intelligence and are task driven. -Logic Theorist emulates six human characteristics of problem-solving behavior.

Factors affecting Learning ( within theory of information processing) Factors affecting Rote Learning: Meaningfulness effect: Highly meaningful words are easier to learn and remember than less meaningful words. This is true whether meaningful is measured by
1) the number of associations the learner has for the word,
2) by frequency of the word
3) or by familiarity with the sequential order of letters,
4) or the tendency of the work to elicit clear images.
An implication is that retention will be improved to the extent the user can make meaning of the material.

Serial position effect Serial position effects result from the particular placement of an item within a list. Memory is better for items placed at beginning or end of list rather than in the middle. An exception to these serial positions is the distinctiveness effect - an item that is distinctively different from the others will be remembered better, regardless of serial position.

Practice effects Active practice or rehearsal improves retention, and distributed practice is usually more effective than massed practice. The advantage to distributed practice is especially noticeable for lists, fast presentation rates or unfamiliar stimulus material. The advantage to distributed practice apparently occurs because massed practice allows the learner to associate a word with only a single context, but distributed practice allows association with many different contexts.

Transfer effects Transfer effects are effects of prior learning on the leaning of new material. Positive transfer occurs when previous learning makes new learning easier. Negative transfer occurs when it makes the new learning more difficult. The more that two tasks have in common, the more likely that transfer effects occur.

Interference effects. Interference effects occur when memory or particular material is hurt by previous or subsequent learning. Interference effects occur when trying to remember material that has previously been learned. Interference effects are always negative.

Organization effects Organization effects occur when learners chunk or categorize the input. Free recall of lists is better when learners organize the items into categories rather than attempt to memorize the list in serial order.

Levels-of-Processing effects The more deeply a word is processed, the better it will be remembered. Semantic encoding of content is likely to lead to better memory. Elaborative encoding, improves memory by making sentences more meaningful.

State-Dependent effects State- or Context-dependent effects occur because learning takes place in within a specific context that must be accessible later, at least initially, within the same context. For example, lists are more easily remembered when the test situation more closely resembles the leaning situation, apparently due to contextual cues available to aid in information retrieval.

Mnemonic effects Mnemonics - strategies for elaborating on relatively meaningless input by associating the input with more meaningful images or semantic context. Four well-known mnemonic methods are the place method, the link method, the peg method and the keyword method.

Factors affecting meaningful verbal learning: Abstraction effects Abstraction is the tendency of learners to pay attention to and remember the gist of a passage rather than the specific words of a sentence. In general, to the extent that learners assume the goal is understanding rather than verbatim memory and the extent that the material can be analyzed into main ideas and supportive detail, learners will tend to concentrate on the main ideas and to retain these in semantic forms that are more abstract and generalized than the verbatim sentences included in the passage.

Levels effect This effect occurs when the learner perceives that some parts of the passage are more important than others. Parts that occupy higher levels in the organization of the passage will be learned better than parts occupying low levels.

Schema effects Gagne' and Dick suggest that

• 1) newly learned information is stored by being incorporated into schemas formed on the basis of previous learning
• 2) recall of previously learned verbal information is strongly influenced by these schema, so that remembering is a constructive act;
• 3) schemas not only aid retention of new material, by providing frameworks for storage, but also alter the new information by making it "fit" the expectations built into the schemas;
• 4) schemas make it possible for learners to make inferences that fill gaps in stories or expository prose.;
• 5) schema are organized in terms of figurative verbal knowledge and in terms of components of intellectual skills;
• 6) ideally learners will be able to process new information as well as evaluate and modify their own schema.

Anderson (1984) has also developed six functions of schema.

• 1) provide scaffolding for
• assimilation of textual information.
• 2) facilitate selective allocation of attention.
• 3) enable
• inferential elaboration .
• 4) allow orderly memory searches
• 5) facilitate editing and summarizing
• 6) permit inferential reconstruction.

Prior Knowledge effects Prior knowledge effects will occur to the extent that the learner can use existing knowledge to establish a context or construct a schema into which the new information can be assimilated.

Inference effects Inference effects occur when learners use schemas or other prior knowledge to make inferences about intended meanings that go beyond what is explicitly stated in the text. Three kinds of inferences are case grammar pre-suppositions, conceptual dependency inferences and logical deductions.

Student misconception effects. Prior knowledge can lead to misconceptions. Misconceptions may be difficult to correct due to fact that learner may not be aware that knowledge s a misconception. Misconception occurs when input is filtered through schemas that are oversimplified, distorted or incorrect.

Text Organization Effects Text organization refers to the effects that the degree and type of organization built into a passage have on the degree and type of information that learners encode and remember. Structural elements such as advanced organizers, previews, logical sequencing, outline formats, higlighting of main ideas and summaries assist learning in retaining information. These organization effects facilitate chunking, subsumption of material into schemas and related processes that enable encoding as an organized body of meaningful knowledge. In addition, text organization elements cue learners to which aspects of the material are most important.

Mathemagenic Effects
Mathemagenic effects, coined by Rothkopf (1970) , refer to various things that learners do to prepare and assist their own learning. These effects refer to the active information processing by learners. Mathemagenic activities include answering adjunct questions or taking notes and can enhance learning.

References: Educational Psychology A Realistic Approach: Good, T.E. and Brophy, J.E. Third edition. Longman Publishing, New York.1986. Theories of Learning: Hilgard, E.R. and Bower, G.H. Fourth Ediction. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1975.